DOI: 10.52150/2522-9117-2026-40-005
S. V. Adzhamskyi1,2, Ph. D. (Tech. Sci.),ORCID 0000-0002-6095-8646
T. V. Balakhanova3,*, Cand. Tech. Sci., ORCID 0000-0003-2493-218X
O. E. Baranovska3, Cand. Tech. Sci., ORCID 0000-0002-4106-5797
R. V. Podolskyi2,3,4, Ph. D. (Tech. Sci.),ORCID 0000-0002-0288-0641
1 LLC “Additive Laser Technology of Ukraine”
2 Institute of Transport Systems and Technologies of the NAS of Ukraine
3 Iron and steel institute of Z.I. Nekrasov of National academy of science of Ukraine
4 Institute of Applied Control Systems of the NAS of Ukraine
* Corresponding author: tatja.balakhanova@gmail.com
CONFLICTING INFLUENCE OF SCANNING PARAMETERS ON THE GEOMETRY AND SIZE OF THE MELT POOL DURING THE LPBF PROCESS (REVIEW)
Abstract. Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is one of the leading technologies for additive manufacturing of metal parts with complex geometries, enabling the production of both solid and porous structures with tailored characteristics. However, the widespread industrial adoption of LPBF is limited by defects such as porosity, residual stresses, incomplete powder melting, and layer unevenness. These defects significantly affect the mechanical properties, dimensional accuracy, and corrosion resistance of the final products. A central element of the process is the melt pool, whose stability governs the formation of the microstructure, alloy quality, and behavior of multilayer structures. However, data on melt pool behavior remain controversial: results from experiments and numerical simulations often do not coincide, making it difficult to unambiguously assess the effects of process parameters. The interaction of factors such as laser power, scanning speed, sample placement on the build platform, beam inclination, and gas flow is often nonlinear and unpredictable. Consequently, defect formation and track morphology can vary considerably even under similar process conditions, highlighting the high level of uncertainty and inconsistency in the data. This paper summarizes existing studies analyzing the formation of single tracks and multilayer structures, emphasizes discrepancies between experimental observations and numerical models, and identifies key factors requiring further investigation. The significant influence of numerous LPBF parameters, as well as the complex and multifactorial nature of the process, is evident. Beyond the effects of individual parameters, their interactions play a critical role, but have been studied less extensively due to the need for large-scale, high-precision experiments. Knowledge of the relationships between process instability, laser beam angle, and gas flow direction, in combination with other parameters, can help to better understand the causes of variations in the properties of metal products. Analyzing the challenges and prospects of studying single and multilayer tracks in melt pools allows for a deeper understanding of LPBF processes, supports the determination of optimal process parameters, and improves product quality, ultimately enabling more precise process control and effective evaluation of powder alloy properties.
Key words: laser powder bed fusion, single tracks, melt pool, keyhole, LPBF process parameters
For citation: Adzhamskyi, S. V., Balakhanova, T. V., Baranovska, O. Ye., & Podolskyi, R. V. (2026). Conflicting influence of scanning parameters on the geometry and size of the melt pool during the LPBF process (review). Fundamental and applied problems of ferrous metallurgy, 40, 79-97. https://doi.org/10.52150/2522-9117-2026-40-005
References
1. VOSviewer. (2025 April 15), Visualizing scientific landscapes. Centre for Science and Technology Studies, Leiden University. Retrieved, from: https://www.vosviewer.com
2. Gephi. (Version 0.10.1) [Computer software]. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2025, https://gephi.org/
3. Li, Y., Shi, Y., Lu, Y., Li, X., Zhou, J., Zadpoor, A. A., & Wang, L. (2023). Additive manufacturing of vascular stents. Acta Biomater, 167, 16-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2023.06.014
4. Gonnabattula, A., Thanumoorthy, R. S., Bontha, S., Balan, A.S., Anil Kumar, V., & Kanjarla, A. (2024). Process parameter optimization for laser directed energy deposition (LDED) of Ti6Al4V using single-track experiments with small laser spot size. Optics & Laser Technology, 175, 110-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2024.110861
5. Stopka, K., Desrosiers, A., Nicodemus, T., Krutz, N., Andreaco, A., & Sangid, M. (2023). Intentionally Seeding Pores in Additively Manufactured Alloy 718: Process Parameters, Microstructure, Defects, and Fatigue. Additive Manufacturing, 66, 34-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2023.103450
6. Zhang, J., Zong, X., Chen, Z., & Fu, H. A (2021). Numerical Simulation and Process Optimization of a Hastelloy X Alloy Single Track Produced by Selective Laser Melting. Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, 75, 101-111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12666-021-02407-2
7. Jaramillo-Isaza, C., Higuera Cobos, O., Taborda Rios, J., Lopez-Botello, O., & Robledo, P. (2023). Correlation of Energy Density and Manufacturing Variables of AA6061 through Laser Powder Bed Fusion and Its Effect on the Densification Mechanism. Metals, 13, 1904. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13111904
8. Yadroitsev, I., Gusarov, A., Yadroitsava, I., & Smurov, I. (2010). Single track formation in selective laser melting of metal powders. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 210, 1624-1631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2010.05.010
9. Tat, K., Le, V. T., & Van, N. (2024). Prediction models and multi-objective optimization of the single deposited tracks in laser direct metal deposition of 316L stainless steel. Manufacturing Review, 11. https://doi.org/10.1051/mfreview/2024012
10. Yadroitsev, I., Yadroitsava, I., Du Plessis, A., & Macdonald, E. (2021). Fundamentals of Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Metals, 5, 654
11. Rangaswamy, S., Bourke, D., Monu, M. C., Healy, P., Gu, H., Ahad, I. U., & Brabazon, D. (2024). Investigating Melt Pool Dimensions in Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Nitinol: An Analytical Approach. Advanced Engineering Materials, 26, 24-31. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202401636
12. Bakhtari, A.R., Sezer, H. K., Canyurt, O. E., Eren, O., Shah, M., & Marimuthu, S. (2024). A Review on Laser Beam Shaping Application in Laser-Powder Bed Fusion. Advanced Engineering Materials, 26(14). https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202302013
13. Yang, T., Liu, T., Liao, W., Macdonald, E., Wei, H., Zhang, C., Chen, X., &Z hang, K. (2020). Laser powder bed fusion of AlSi10Mg: Influence of energy intensities on spatter and porosity evolution, microstructure and mechanical properties. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.156300
14. Manikandan, P., Venkatesan, K. (2024). The influence of linear energy density on density, defect formation, residual stress, microstructure, and texture in 310 austenitic stainless steel by laser powder bed fusion. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 131, 2191–2207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2024.10.022
15. Paraschiv, A., Matache, G., Condruz, M. R., Frigioescu, T. F., & Pambaguian, L. (2022). Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process Parameters’ Optimization for Fabrication of Dense IN 625. Materials, 15(16), 5777. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15165777
16. Caiazzo, F., Alfieri, V., & Casalino, G. (2020). On the Relevance of Volumetric Energy Density in the Investigation of Inconel 718 Laser Powder Bed Fusion. Materials, 3(3), 538. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13030538
17. Gaikwad, A., Giera, B., Guss, G., Forien, J.-B., Matthews, M., & Rao, P. (2020). Heterogeneous sensing and scientific machine learning for quality assurance in laser powder bed fusion – A single-track study. Additive Manufacturing, 36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101659
18. Yang, A., Zhao, Z., & Zhang, X. (2025). A bidirectional prediction framework for melt pool size and process parameters in LPBF. Engineering Research Express, 7. https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-8695/adb0a2
19. Khorasani, A., Gibson, I., Ghasemi, A., & Ghaderi, A. (2019). Modelling of Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process and Analysing the Effective Parameters on Surface Characteristics of Ti-6Al-4V. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences,168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2019.105299
20. Glaubitz, E., Fox, J., Kafka, O., & Gockel, J. (2025). Contour parameters, melt pool behavior, and surface roughness relationships across laser powder bed fusion platforms and metallic alloys. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 136, 4419–4437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-025-15066-0
21. Fiegl, T., Franke, M., & Körner, C. (2019). Impact of build envelope on the properties of additive manufactured parts from AlSi10Mg. Optics & Laser Technology, 111, 51–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2018.08.050
22. Kleszczynski, S., Ladewig, A., Friedberger, K., Merhof D., & Witt, G. (2015). Position Dependency of Surface Roughness in Parts from Laser Beam Melting Systems. https://hdl.handle.net/2152/89333
23. Yang, X. H., Jiang, C. M., Ho, J. R., Tung, P. C., & Lin, C. K. (2021). Effects of Laser Spot Size on the Mechanical Properties of AISI 420 Stainless Steel Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting. Materials (Basel), 14(16), 4593. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164593
24. Metelkova, J., Kinds, Y., Kempen, K., de Formanoir, C., Witvrouw, A., & Hooreweder, B. (2018). On the influence of laser defocusing in Selective Laser Melting of 316L. Additive Manufacturing, 23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.08.006
25. Bedmar, J., Riquelme, A., Rodrigo, P., Torres, B., & Rams J. (2021). Comparison of Different Additive Manufacturing Methods for 316L Stainless Steel. Materials, 14(21), 6504. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216504
26. Mo, Bin, Li, Tao, Deng, Linhui, Shi, Feifan, Liu, Weiwei, & Zhang, HongChao. (2024). Mechanisms and influencing factors of defect formations during laser-based directed energy deposition with coaxial powder feeding: a review. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 19. https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2024.2404155
27. Reijonen, Joni, Revuelta, Alejandro, Metsä-Kortelainen, Sini, & Salminen, Antti. (2024). Effect of laser focal point position on porosity and melt pool geometry in laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, 85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2024.104180
28. Mazzarisi, Marco, Errico, Vito, Angelastro, Antonio, & Mazzarisi, Marco. (2022). Influence of standoff distance and laser defocusing distance on direct laser metal deposition of a nickel-based superalloy. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 120, 2407–2428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-08945-3
29. Wang, S, Wang, L, Liu, J, Yang, R, Li, J, & Wang, G. (2023). Effects of laser energy density on morphology features and microstructures of the single molten track in selective laser melting. Frontiers in Materials, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmats.2023.1110844
30. Godineau, Kevin, Lavernhe, Sylvain, & Tournier, Christophe. (2019). Influence of the opto-mechanical chain on the energy provided by the laser spot to the material in laser powder bed fusion processes. Additive Manufacturing, 27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.102333
31. Brandau, B. (2022). Spectral analysis in laser powder bed fusion (Licentiate thesis). Luleå University of Technology. Available. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1656943/FULLTEXT01.pdf
32. Sendino, S., Gardon, M., Lartategui, F., Martinez, S., & Lamikiz, A. (2020). The Effect of the Laser Incidence Angle in the Surface of LPBF Processed Parts. Coatings, 10(11), 1024. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings10111024
33. Alphonso, W. E., Bayat, M., Rothfelder, R., Schmidt, M., & Hattel, J. H. (2024). A Systematic Investigation of Laser Beam Shape Variation on the Thermal and Melt Pool Dynamics in Laser Powder Bed Fusion of 316L Stainless Steel. Abstract from 26th International Congress of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Daegu, Republic of Korea
34. Berez, J., Dushaj, E., Jost, E., Saldaña, C., & Fu, K. (2024). Measurement of focal plane error in laser powder bed fusion machines. Additive Manufacturing Letters, 9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100196
35. Lee, J., Lee, M., Jung, I. D., Choe, J., Yu, J. H., Kim, S., & Sung, H. (2020). Correlation Between Microstructure and Tensile Properties of STS 316L and Inconel 718 Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting (SLM). Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 20(11), 6807–6814
36. Adyamskyi, S., Kononenko, G., Podolskyi, R., & Badyuk, S. (2022). Vprovadzhennia tekhnolohii selektyvnoho lazernoho plavlennia v Ukraini. [Implementation of Selective Laser Melting Technology in Ukraine]. Naukova Dumka.
37. Mussatto, A., Groarke, R., Vijayaraghavan, R. K., Hughes, C., Obeidi, M. A., Doğu, M. N., Yalçın, M. A., McNally, P. J., Delaure, Y. M., & Brabazon, D. (2022). Assessing dependency of part properties on the printing location in laser-powder bed fusion metal additive manufacturing. Materials Today Communications. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.103209
38. Kozhuthala Veetil, J., Khorasani, A., Ghasemi, A., Rolfe, B., Vrooijink, I., van Beurden, K., Moes, S., & Gibson, I. (2020). Build position-based dimensional deviations of laser powder-bed fusion of stainless steel 316L. Precision Engineering, 67, 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2020.09.024
39. Karimi, P., Sadeghi, E., Ålgårdh, J., Harlin, P., & Andersson, J. (2020). Effect of build location on microstructural characteristics and corrosion behavior of EB-PBF built Alloy 718. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 106, 3597–3607. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-04859-9
40. Costes, M., Arnaud, L., Lefebvre, P., & Mandou, Q. (2024). Experimental study of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) gas shield inlet optimization and its effects on part quality. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 133, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-024-14035-3
41. Oliveira, A., Castro, H., Santos, S., Jardini, A., & Del Conte, E. (2023). Effects of spatter deposition and build location in laser powder bed fusion of maraging steel parts. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-12445-3
42. Biswas, P., & Ma, J. (2022). Spatial pore distribution: an approach to uncouple the strength–porosity trade-offs. J Mater Sci, 57, 411–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-021-06587-6
43. Soltani-Tehrani, A., Isaac, J. P., Tippur, H. V., Silva, D. F., Shao, S., & Shamsaei, N. (2023). Ti-6Al-4V powder reuse in laser powder bed fusion (LPBF): The effect on porosity, microstructure, and mechanical behavior. International Journal of Fatigue, 167, Part B. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2022.107343
44. Reijonen, J., Revuelta, A., Riipinen, T., Ruusuvuori, K., & Puukko, P. (2020). On the effect of shielding gas flow on porosity and melt pool geometry in laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing. Additive Manufacturing, 32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.101030
45. Anwar, A., & Pham, Q. C. (2016). Selective laser melting of AlSi10Mg: Effects of scan direction, part placement and inert gas flow velocity on tensile strength. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.10.015
46. Steve, B. (2017). A study into the effects of gas flow inlet design in a Renishaw AM250 laser powder bed fusion machine using computational modelling
47. Weaver, J. S., Deisenroth, D., & Mekhontsev, S. (2024). Cross-sectional melt pool geometry of laser scanned tracks and pads on nickel alloy 718 for the 2022 additive manufacturing benchmark challenges. Integr. Mater Manu.f Innov., 13, 363-379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40192-024-00355-5
48. Krasniqi, M., & Löffler, F. (2023). Dimensional accuracy of additively manufactured AlSi10Mg parts: Study of the influence of build platform position, process parameters and repeatability. Joint Special Interest Group meeting between euspen and ASPE Advancing Precision in Additive Manufacturing KU Leuven, Belgium, September 2023
49. Yildiz, R. A., Popa, A.-A., & Malekan, M. (2024). On the effect of small laser spot size on the mechanical behaviour of 316L stainless steel fabricated by LPBF additive manufacturing. Materials Today Communications, 38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2024.108168
Рукопис надійшов до редакції / Received 01.03.2026
Рекомендовано до друку / Accepted 28.05.2026
Опубліковано / Published 30.05.2026
